The Foundations of Psychology

The Foundations of Psychology

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The field of psychology has its origins in philosophy and religion.  The literal translation of the word psychology means “the study of the soul” (Kowalski & Westen, 2009).  The field of study is ancient, rooted in early Greek philosophy. Since its beginnings, psychology has evolved into a field of study of its own. Today, psychology is comprised of several major schools of thought, each with the goal of studying and explaining human thought and behavior. These schools of thought include; psychodynamics, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, evolutionary psychology, and biopsychology.

I am not crazy! I am eccentric!

Psychodynamics- the school of psychodynamic psychology attempts to study the internal forces that underlie human behavior. The internal forces studied include the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation. Through psychodynamic psychology, various parts of the mind, personality and psyche and their interrelationship are studied in relation to mental, emotional and motivational forces at the unconscious level that affect behavior and states of mind.

Behaviorism- is the study of observable behaviors rather than internal subconscious conflicts. Behaviorists hold that human behavior is affected by stimuli from the environment, especially through learning, and that all behaviors are acquired through processes of conditioning. Many components of cultural and sociological theory have been integrated into behaviorism due to the assumption that all behavior is learned and the correlating assumption that an individual is a product of their environment. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two ways in which behaviors are learned using notions of stimulus, response and reinforcement.

Cognitive psychology- Views the human mind as an information processing system that thinks about, or computes, input from the outside world to create outputs in the form of mental or physical states. As such, from the point of view of cognitive psychology, how a person behaves is a result of what a person sees, experiences and remembers.

Evolutionary Psychology- Views human behavior as a result of instinct and social evolution (Kowalski & Westen, 2009). Evolutionary psychologists, as a result, view human nature and behavior as a product of a universal set of evolved psychological adaptations to problems in the ancestral environment. In addition, the brains adaptive mechanisms were shaped by natural and sexual selection similar to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection.

Biopsychology- The branch of psychology that specifically studies how the brain, neurotransmitters, and central nervous system affect behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field attempts to explain human behavior from a chemical and biological standpoint.  

These schools of psychology often have considerable overlap even though they may seem contradictory. As psychology continues to evolve, the correlations of these fields become more defined.  In the future, psychology will continue to expand encompassing larger areas of thought.

References

Kowalski, R., & Westen, D. (2009). Psychology (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 

This post is intended to help with PSY 300 and many other psychology courses. If you need help with PSY 300 or any other psychology course come visit Homework Mountain!

Leadership vs. Management

There are a variety of courses that this post can assist with, these include: BUS 210, BUS 475, HRM 330, HSM 210, 220, 230, 240, MGT 307, MMPBL 530 PSY 210, 270, 300, BPA 301, 302, 303, 406, and many others.

The question of whether someone can be a leader and a manager is a common question in academics. In fact this question is not limited to business topics but is also asked in Human Services, Psychology, and a variety of other courses. I am not sure why but students seem to have a difficult time with this question and answer. I am not sure if they are over thinking it in terms of applying the solution to the particular course or if the synonymous use of the term is confusing. Either way the question seems to give many students problems and I thought that a generic answer might help alleviate some of this confusion. Here are some examples of this type of question that students will face. The question is basically the same in each instance.

Can someone who is a leader not be a manager? Why or why not? Can someone who is a manager not be a leader? 
Can a good manager be a good leader?
Can a good manager be a bad leader? 

There is a fine line between manager and leader. Being a good leader does not necessarily equate with being a good manager.  Managers are often viewed as leaders and while they sometimes serve this function there is a distinction in the roles. Leaders inspire, create and motivate change.  Managers carry out the inspirations of the leadership. Managers are often tasked with maintaining the operations of the organization. This does not leave a large area of creativity or for decision making with regard to the system. When viewed in this light managers can be seen more as caretakers of the organization. There are many managers who are not leaders, we see this commonly in large retail chains. For example, a fast food manager is given systems and rules to follow from how many people to work at which times, and which sales to hold and when. There is little creativity in this situation and change is not the responsibility of the manager. In fact, the only form of leadership that takes place in this structure is that the manager must make sure that the systems and operations are carried out in line with the organizations demands. This situation works both ways in that leaders may not make the best managers because they tend to think outside the box.

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Process Flow Structures

Process Flow Structures
Recommended Classes: MGT 431

Process flow structures are organizational models which consist of a series of steps which determine how a product is manufactured or a service provided. The process flow structure determines how facilities will be laid out, the working methods used, the resources needed, the technology used, and how efficient the process is. In this manner, the process flow structure represents an important factor driving the competitiveness of a firm's operations, and hence its overall level of competitive advantage.

A process flow is typically designed within two categories: either a job shop or a flow shop. The job shop process flow structure is a general structure, marked with a high degree of flexibility. In contrast, a flow shop process flow structure is limited to certain resources which gives it a rigid work flow.

The process flow structures can be further categorized into five structures:
• Project structure, where a single project is planned with a fixed end date.
• Job shop structure, where each flow will be similar but slightly different.
• A batch process, where each flow produces a batch of identical products.
• An assembly line structure, where the flow produces a continuous supply of fixed goods.
• Continuous flow structure, where a continuous supply of finished goods is produced.

References
Gray, C. F., & Larson, E. W. (2006). Project management: The managerial process (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Media & Culture Overview

Recommended Classes: HUM 111, HUM 176

Social Media

What is the value of seeing films and shows as a shared experience? 
When we view a movie or television show we are inclined to form opinions and concepts from the experience. When we share these experiences with other people, they agree or disagree with our ideas or they might build on those concepts. In this form of argument, this is where critical thought occurs in which each individual viewer comparing facts and critiquing the meaning of the film.

What are the benefits and problems of publicizing a business using social media?
The benefits of publicizing a business using social media include: low cost advertising, targeting specific markets, and consumer feedback. Some of the problems include:
1. Social media websites are not meant for aggressive marketing.
2. Social media needs to be constantly updated
3. Consumer feedback can act in a very negative manner, branding an item with poor feedback.

What benefits do social media offer for your personal use? 
The largest benefit of social media is that it allows for free communication between people. People are less likely to completely lose track of one another for this reason.

What value do social media offer for professional use? 
Social media allows professionals to link and stay in touch with one another through sites such as Facebook or LinkdIn. This creates a new means of networking which was not possible without social media.

The Effects of Violence on Audiences from Gaming
Many people believe that violence in video games causes’ violent behavior; especially in children. However, studies do not support these conclusions. In December 2001, the Surgeon General of the United States David Satcher, M.D., Ph.D., led a study on violence in youth and determined that the findings suggest that media violence has a relatively small impact on violence in general.

When one thinks of it critically, these ideas do not make sense. For example, there are millions of people all around the world playing Call of Duty (an online war game), however this is not causing massive widespread chaos and killing. One would think that this would be the case if these concepts were true.

What are the most controversial issues electronic gaming today?
There are three important controversies with regard to video games. These controversies include; violence, causation of immoral behavior, and causation of sedentary lifestyle.

Do electronic games have a positive effect on culture? Explain your answer.
People who play World of Warcraft and other online role playing games get tomix with people from different cultures from all over the world. This is apositive effect on culture because it helps build diversity and globalization.

 References
Lauren Gonzalez (2009) A history of video game controversies http://www.gamespot.com/features/6090892/p-3.html

Psychology: Theories of Learning and Memory

Recommended Classes: PSY 201, PSY 300

Psychology - Theories of Learning & Memory

A major subject of focus for psychologists in the last century has been how we learn.  Different kinds of psychologists have different theories for learning. Memory is one aspect of how we learn that is rooted in biological processing. For some psychologists, we are conditioned as we learn. All of these different aspects of learning are useful to know for our own benefit by understanding how our own learning processes work and how they may differ from others.

Three main psychological frameworks for learning theories are behaviorism, constructivism and cognitivism. These frameworks differ in fundamental ways; behaviorism focuses on observable aspects of learning, constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs new concepts, and cognitive theories look beyond behavior at brain-based learning processes. The first theory, behaviorism, was developed by B.F. Skinner and is essentially views learning as the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. Environment shapes behavior and the principles of contiguity and reinforcement are central to the behaviorism explanation of the learning process. Two types of conditioning have been studied and theorized by behaviorists, classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

Under the behaviorist framework of learning, classical conditioning is a type of learning that develops out of response to certain stimuli that are not naturally occurring. Pavlov’s dogs were conditioned to believe they would receive meat when a bell rang and would start to salivate. The salivation would occur later when they heard the bell even if meat was not presented to them, demonstrating learning through classical conditioning. We are classically conditioned every day by stimuli around us. Operant conditioning is similar to classical conditioning, however it refers to how an organism operates in its environment. Operant conditioning, therefore, is based on how we respond to natural consequences of our actions in an environment. If someone makes a mistake, such as touching a hot surface and getting hurt, they will remember that mistake and learn from it. The pain involved with touching the hot surface reinforced a learned change in behavior, to not touch a hot stove. Positive operant conditioning also occurs when we do something that has a positive outcome, such as getting an amazing night sleep after stretching before bed. That person will most likely continue to stretch before bed in order to continue getting a good night’s sleep.

Constructivism theories of learning developed out of educational psychology. Constructivists view learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts built on current knowledge, past knowledge, and experience. As such, constructivism-learning theories believe that learning is a personal endeavor whereby an individual constructs their own knowledge based on their own experiences. We construct knowledge by applying existing knowledge to realistic problems in our every day lives.

A third framework is cognitive learning theories, which developed out of Gestalt psychology in the early 1900’s that emphasize the whole of the human experience rather than isolated events Cognitivists assume, similarly to constructivists, that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Another assumption is that our senses are organized into perceptions of the world around us, while our memory system is an active organizing processor of this information. Cognitivists highlight the brain-based process of memory as working to promote learning. Memories are stored in a three-stage process; the sensory store, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory. The sensory store takes in all stimuli registered by the senses, but is retained for only three seconds maximum. Short-term memory, or working memory, registers the stimuli in the sensory store that we consciously pay attention to. About 7 items of information can be kept for about 30 seconds in the short-term memory. Through rehearsal and repetition of the information for at least 30 seconds, the information can be moved to the third stage of the memory process – long-term memory. An unlimited amount of information can be held indefinitely in long-term memory, but some information is lost with time, and can be retrieved for further thought processing in short-term working memory in the future.

Knowing how memories are stored helps people learn how to remember what they need to remember, making learning processes efficient. By understanding the different theories of how we learn, we can begin improve our own learning processes, build cognitive skills, recognize positive forms of conditioning as a tool for teaching, and realize that we are active participants in the learning process.

References

Ormrod, Jeanne (2012). Human learning (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Psychology: The 5 Approaches

Recommended Classes: PSY 201, PSY 300

5 Different Perspectives of Psychology

Psychology is the study of the human mind and behavior. This is a very broad area of study and, as such, five main perspectives or approaches to psychology have evolved over time.  Each approach shares a set of assumptions that differ from the other approaches, such as the way we function, what to study, and how to study it. The five major approaches in psychology are behaviorist, psychodynamic, humanism, cognitive, and biological. Each field of thought concentrates its study with a different theoretical basis.

Behaviorist psychology uses the scientific method to determine how environmental factors, or stimuli, affects observable behavior in response. Behaviorists reject the idea that people possess free will, assuming that the environment determines all behavior and subsequent learning. Behaviorists believe their approach to psychology is the most scientific because studies focus on observable and measurable data to draw conclusions about human behavior. The events that occur in our environment, the proximity in time with which events repeat (contiguity), and reinforcement determine how we learn and the behaviors that reveal themselves. Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s Dogs) and operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner) are two behaviorist theories of learning.

The psychodynamic psychology perspective, made famous by Sigmund Freud, studies human behavior with the belief that inner forces or subconscious thoughts are the driving force behind behavior. Rather than the environment affecting our behavior, our internal forces affect how we behave in a particular environment. An important aspect of Freud’s psychoanalysis is that our childhood experiences have a significant impact on our behaviors as adults, even if those childhood experiences are repressed into unconscious thought. Freud accessed the unconscious mind in three main ways; free association, slips of the tongue (known now as Freudian slips), and dream analysis. Freud also described the unconscious mind as being composed of three components; the id, ego and superego. The id and superego are at conflict with each other while the ego attempts to resolve the conflict. Psychotherapy sessions are used to resolve this inner conflict of patients so defense mechanisms such as unhealthy behaviors are no longer necessary to relieve anxiety. Psychodynamic psychology is not scientific and has been criticized over the years, but the basic premises of inner forces affecting behavior and childhood experiences determining adult behavior have been retooled in other theories.

Humanism’s approach to psychology is to study the whole of the human experience, including observable behavior as well as inner-feelings and past experience. Unlike behaviorists and psychodynamic psychologists, humanists believe that we all have free will and the capacity to change at any point in our lives. This perspective assumes that we are all each responsible for our own happiness and well-being because we have the innate capacity for self-actualization, or the desire to reach our highest potential.  Due to the nature of humanism's approach to psychology, focusing on an individual’s personal experiences and subjective perceptions of the world, unlike behaviorists, humanists believe the scientific method is an inappropriate approach to the study of human behavior. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are two of the most influential humanist psychologists to emerge in the mid-20^th century.

Psychologists adhering to the cognitive approach explore the physiological processes of the brain, determining why people behave the way they do by studying the processes that are actually occurring in their mind. These processes include sensory perception of the environment around us, memory, attention, and more, viewing an individual’s mind as an organizing processor of information that is stored as knowledge and influence behaviors. Cognitive psychologists use the scientific method to study these mental processes and the behavioral outputs.

Last, but not least, the biological perspective examines how biological functions affect behavior. Since Darwin first proposed the influence of genetics and evolution on human behavior through the process of natural selection, biological psychologists have mapped genomes, studied hormones, chromosomes, inherited traits, and more in relation to how they influence human behavior.  For example, gender is a biological influence on human behavior determined by a specific set of chromosomes inherited at conception. Many biological psychologists focus on abnormal psychology in an effort to explain why these individuals differ from their normally functioning counterparts. Biological psychology, by understanding chemical imbalances as an influence on human behavior, utilize pharmaceutical solutions to bring individuals to normal levels and allow them to successfully function in society.

These five major perspectives of psychology overlap at times and no single approach is the correct approach. Understanding the assumptions and findings of one approach can aid with the understanding of theories in another approach. Human beings are very complex creatures with no simple answer or single approach to answer our most basic questions about ourselves.

Reference: Feldman, R. S. (2010) Psychology and your life. New York: McGraw Hill.

Psychology Terminology Overview

Recommended Classes: PSY 210, PSY 270, PSY 300, PSY428

Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar disorder is classified by the DSMVI as mood disorders. Bipolar disorder is marked by mood swings ranging from manic to depressive states. People with bipolar disorder experience unusually strong emotional states that are referred to as ‘mood episodes’. There are two opposing episodes called manic and depressive. It can occur where; a mood episode combines symptoms that are manic and depressive. This is known as a mixed state. This variance makes it possible for an individual with bipolar disorder to experience a period of unstable moods rather than distinct episodes exhibiting depression or mania (NIMH, 2010).

Unipolar Disorder

Unipolar disorder, also known as Major Depression, is a mood disorder characterized by degrees of sadness, disappointment, loneliness, hopelessness, self-doubt, and guilt. The symptoms of unipolar disorder are the same as the second category of symptoms in bipolar disorder. The feelings exhibited in these symptoms might be very intense and could persist for a long period. Depression can cause normal daily activities to become very difficult. Sometimes this difficulty is so severe that the individual may not be able to cope with daily activities such as work or household chores. At this level, feelings of hopelessness can become so intense that the individual may need hospitalization (NIMH, 2010). 

Stroop Effect

Stroop Effect is the reaction time of a specific color and word association task. The name of a color such as "red," "yellow," or "green") is printed in a color that is different from the name. For example the word "green" is printed in red ink instead of green ink.  When a person is asked to name the color of the word this task is more difficult taking longer and creating more verbal errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color (Howieson et al, 2004). This is referred to as Stroop Effect.

Stroop Effect denotes particular patterns in human thinking such as word meaning is given more importance than the color a word is written in. This shows that humans are not always in control of their attention by virtue of the occurrence of interference when a subject is trying to pay attention only to the color. This effect also has shown that age is directly related to this interference. Young children do not exhibit the same level of interference which adults do suggesting that Stroop Effect increases over time as people learn to think in this manner (Howieson et al, 2004).

The Stroop Effect has played a large role in the development of Interference Theory. This theory and Stroop Effect show that humans learn and how experiences can affect memory. This test is used to measure selective attention, cognitive flexibility and processing speed (Howieson et al, 2004). Stroop has many different variations that have been adapted to measuring particular areas of interference. Such examples might include bilingualism studies and even physical changes in brain chemistry as monitored when giving the test during an MRI. Because of its clinical use in measuring deficiencies in cognitive skills and memory, Stroop Effect is one of the largest and well-known tools used in psychology today.

Research Methods

Scientific method- A body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

Case study method- A study that is based upon biographical data derived from interviews, questionnaires, or tests.

Survey method- The gathering of data by questioning large groups of individuals questions.

Naturalistic observation method- This technique involves observing subjects in their natural environment. This type of research is often utilized in situations where conducting lab research is unrealistic, cost prohibitive or would unduly affect the subject's behavior.

Correlation method- Correlation studies are used to look for relationships between variables. There are three possible results of a correlation study: a positive correlation, a negative correlation,and no correlation.

Experimental method- A method that attempts to prove or show cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables.

The FiveMajor Perspectives in the Field of Psychology

There are five major perspectives in the field of psychology. These perspectives include;
1. Cognitive
2. Behavioral
3. Humanistic
4. Psychodynamic
5. Neuroscience 

References
Howieson, D. B. Lezak, M. D. Loring, D. W. (2004). Orientation and attention. Neuropsychological assessment. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 3365–367.

NIMH. (2010). Major depression . Retrieved from
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder/complete-index.shtml

Reference
NIMH. (2010). Bipolar disorder. Retrieved from
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder/complete-index.shtml